Trail-Building:
Habitat Destruction by a Different Name
Michael J. Vandeman, Ph.D.
September 2, 2017
"Impacts on and along trails result from the trampling of hikers and pack
stock and the effects of trail construction and maintenance. These impacts
include the loss of vegetation and shifts in
plant-species composition, exposure of bare mineral soil, soil compaction, and
changes in microhabitats, including changes in draining and erosion. Where
trail construction is carefully planned, most of these changes are of little
concern; although pronounced. Most changes are localized and deliberate."
Dawson and Hendee, 2009, pp. 423-4
"The study revealed that almost 80% of extinction research in the country
focused on cute marsupials such as kangaroos and koalas, whereas
not-so-adorable critters such as bats and rodents held only 11% of research
time, despite making up almost half of the species examined." https://mygoodplanet.com/selective-fashion-going-extinct/
Scientists are generally honest, in what they say but
not in what they choose to study. Despite a diligent search in one of the
world's best libraries (the University of California, Berkeley), I wasn't able
to find a single book or article on the harm done by trail-building. I notice
that whenever I see a picture of a trail, I think "Oh, a trail so
what?" It takes an effort of will to think about the wildlife habitat that
was destroyed in order to build the trail. And the habitat destruction isn't
restricted to the trail bed. As Ed Grumbine pointed out in Ghost Bears,
a grizzly can hear a human from a mile away, and smell one from five miles
away. And grizzlies are probably not unique in that. In other words, animals
within five miles of a trail are inhibited from full use of their habitat. That
is habitat destruction! If there were no trails, we would be confronted by our
own destructiveness every time we entered a park. It is only because the
habitat has already been destroyed for us, that we can pretend that we are
doing no harm.
So why do we build trails? It doesn't take much
experimenting with cross-country travel to see that it is extremely difficult.
There are many kinds of hazards biological (e.g. poison oak, poison sumac,
poisonous snakes, etc.) and physical (e.g. blackberry thorns, cliffs, rivers,
volcanos, etc.). It is extremely difficult to find a passable-, much less an
efficient, route. It would be very difficult to communicate our location to
emergency personnel, without trails. So it is unlikely
that we will eliminate trails in the near future, except from areas designated
off-limits to humans.
That leaves only one option compatible with wildlife
conservation: minimizing the construction, extent, and use of trails. For
example, banning the use of off-road vehicles, such as bicycles, skateboards,
and motorcycles would greatly reduce the use of the trails, the distance that
people travel, and the harm done to the soil and the small animals and plants
found on, under, or near the trails. Mountain bikers complain about being
thereby "denied access", but of course they can still walk. They just
can't easily travel as far as they can on a bike. On public land, especially,
all trail construction should be thoroughly studied, and should be built only
when officially authorized by the land manager, and only by thoroughly
educated, authorized builders.
By far the greatest threat to wildlife habitat in
so-called "protected" areas would appear to be mountain biking.
Motorized vehicles are generally not allowed in natural areas. The most
destructive use of trails is mountain biking. Knobby tires are perfectly
designed to rip up the soil. Mountain bikers, with rare honesty, call their
riding "shredding". They also have a much greater range than hikers,
and probably also equestrians. They also frequently ride illegally where
bicycles are not allowed.
All of this is well known. But what isn't so well
known or understood is the mountain bikers' drive to build ever more trails.
All park users seem to have a need for a certain amount of stimulation. A hiker
or equestrian can satisfy that need on a relatively short trail, because they
experience it fully, through all of their senses. They can stop instantly, and
turn 360 degrees, seeing, hearing, smelling, touching, or tasting anything they
choose. Mountain bikers, on the other hand, tend to ride fast, often as fast as
they can, seeking what they call an "adrenaline rush". But even when
riding slowly, the very nature of a bicycle requires one to focus almost 100%
of his or her attention on the trail immediately in front of their front tire,
or they will crash. The consequence is that they have to travel several times
as far as a hiker, to have the same quantity of experience. And after riding
the same trail a few times, they get bored with it and want to ride a new
trail. And when they've ridden all their local trails, they begin demanding
more trails to be built. Or, if their demands aren't met, they begin secretly
building illegal trails, or building illegal "trail features" (jumps,
berms, log bridges, teeter-totters, etc.). The rain-forests of North Vancouver
are the iconic example (which destruction continues to this day), but it has
been emulated by mountain bikers all over the world.
If this were a matter of a few sites or a few trails,
it wouldn't be too significant. But it's not restricted to one area. Mountain
bikers, apparently ignorant of conservation biology, have destroyed thousands
of square miles of wildlife habitat, and show no signs of slowing down or
recognizing the harm that they are doing. IMBA (the International Mountain
Bicycling Association) has been promoting mountain biking tourism, claiming
that mountain biking brings economic benefits to communities that embrace it,
of course ignoring the economic value of the intact ecosystems they are
destroying. The mountain biking infrastructure is called "epic
trails", "ride centers", "bike parks", etc. They bait
their demands with offers of volunteer trail-building and trail maintenance.
(But, of course, their vision of a good trail (lots of humps, twists, and
turns) is quite different from what the other trail users want.)
In the San Francisco Bay Area, projects were created
to build two huge trails the Bay Trail and Ridge Trail each several hundred
miles long, circling the bay near the water and along the ridgetops. The
community enthusiastically voted for these projects, waxing poetic about all
the "new opportunities" to "connect to nature". Actually,
no new habitat was created, and the trail construction (which still continues)
destroyed an enormous amount of habitat. Nevertheless, I never heard anyone
complain about this. People seem to think that trails somehow thread their way
through the wilderness harmlessly, without touching it.
Haven't we already destroyed far too much wildlife
habitat? Isn't it time we started telling the truth about trails and our
construction and use of them?
Here are a few examples of the destructiveness of trail construction and use
(for an online copy of this paper, where you can click on the links and won't
have to type them, see https://mjvande.info/scb9.htm):
100 Seconds of Trail Destruction with Matty Miles:
https://video.search.yahoo.com/yhs/search?fr=yhs-adk-adk_sbnt&hsimp=yhs-adk_sbnt&hspart=adk&p=mountain+biking+destruction#id=5&vid=b8f9aa6796e6a78ebd127bca34017f48&action=click
(Can you imagine what would happen to you if you happened to be on this
trail?!)
Mountain bike trail building: https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=TtZaUS8YreU
Illegal mountain bike trail construction, Hop Ranch Creek Squamish BC May
27,2014:
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=tcwfT68fV0U&feature=youtu.be
IMBA promotes trail-building:
"Saturday is National Public Lands Day
Get connected with your local IMBA chapter or club to see if it is hosting a
volunteer trail day this Saturday. Trails don't build themselves...show some
love for the places you love to ride!
Dig In Applications Open Through October 6
IMBA is currently accepting applications for its new Dig In
Campaign - a grant program that directly supports local IMBA chhapters [sic] with actionable trail projects. The project
list will be published in early October so stay tuned to see what's happening
near you."
Vancouver's North Shore All Built Illegally! (The video is 51 minutes long, but
every minute is worth watching. Very enlightening!):
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=8mB_gOzG7Oc
IMBA wants to create 500 more miles of trail!:
https://www.imba.com/news/imba-launches-dig-in
669 miles of mountain biking trail:
https://oregontimbertrail.org/
San Francisco Bay Trail: 500 miles: http://baytrail.org/
Bay Area Ridge Trail: 375 miles, growing to 500 miles: http://ridgetrail.org/
Long-distance trails in the United
States: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Long-distance_trails_in_the_United_States
The Lost Sierra to gain 300 news miles of trail:
https://www.bikemag.com/industry-news/grant-aims-to-connect-sierra-nevada-towns-by-trail/
Examples of Destructive Trail-Building:
Illegal Trail Building in Whistler (I am in no way implying that legal trail
building is acceptable! They both destroy wildlife habitat!):
https://www.piquenewsmagazine.com/whistler/wb-incorporates-dark-crystal-into-its-trail-system/Content?oid=4537412
Glorification of illegal trail building:
https://www.revelstokemountaineer.com/the-spokin-word-treading-the-high-seas/
IMBA: "IMBA is currently accepting applications for its new Dig In
Campaign, a grant program that directly supports local IMBA chapters with
actionable trail projects. We are committed to growing access for mountain
bikers and increasing the pace of new builds in the U.S." "It takes a
village: that statement of wisdom is particularly true in the mountain bike
community, where volunteers, experts and funders must come together to make
great places to ride happen. In Wausau, WI, the Central Wisconsin Offroad
Cycling Coalition (CWOCC), an IMBA chapter, recently completed a multi-year
project that resulted in a pumptrack, four
bike-optimized downhill trails of varying difficulty and a beginner-friendly
loop, all designed by IMBA Trail Solutions."
"How To Build A Legit DH Bike Trail":
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=uPoSchTxSs8&feature=youtu.be
Glorifying trail-building and mountain biking:
https://www.facebook.com/globalcivic/videos/1437735176244789/
Day in the life of a Trail Builder: https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=MekS557BEUo:
the upbeat background music clearly indicates the mountain bikers' attitude:
trail building legal or illegal is fun and has no moral implications
Building a Mountain Bike Flow Trail:
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=Ufswp1ABCLU
https://www.imba.com/resources/trail-building/10-most-common-trailbuilding-mistakes
https://mmbhof.org/north-shore-trail-builders/
https://www.singletracks.com/blog/mtb-trails/mountain-bike-trailbuilding-101/
10 Ways to Make Your Mountain Bike Trail Awesome! Part 1: https://bikefat.com/10-ways-to-make-your-mountain-bike-trail-awesome-1/
10 Ways to Make Your Mountain Bike Trail Awesome! Part 2: https://bikefat.com/10-ways-to-make-your-mountain-bike-trail-awesome-2/
Build a Mountain Bike Trail: http://www.instructables.com/id/Bulid-a-Mountain-Bike-Trail/
Trail Building: https://www.pinkbike.com/forum/trail-building/
OUR DIRT: Mountain Bike Trail Building Documentary: https://vimeo.com/65738812 no speed
limit, will hit anything in the trail; too fast to appreciate anything; no
knowledge of biology or conservation.
https://www.facebook.com/media/set/?set=a.10203947520996337.1073741831.1471603969&type=1&l=df5b117fa3
Don't forget this one. This is what "rock armored" mountain bike
trails turn into during heavy rains:
https://youtu.be/pOXYaYFfLyo
Because of all the damage done to our mountain slopes from too much trail
building, they are building debris flow basins in our creeks, here -- but the
authorities won't stop the mountain biking... It is costing us millions of
dollars....
Here is more from British Columbia:
Delta, BC...
https://youtu.be/7q67O7r60fY
(Illegal trail damage to riparian area)
This trail build was legitimate, but shows the damage done by too many people
trail building, and pulling huge roots out, in a stupid kind of challenge race
to see which team can build the most trail in the shortest time. Pure mayhem at
work here (all through pristine area of forest, destroying the ground cover,
and digging borrow pits to collect dirt and rocks to pack on the trails):
https://youtu.be/muicHp5kaKs (at the
.24 mark, you can see a guy just tear out a large tree root...) "When
Arc'teryx challenged MEC to a trail building competition, we jumped at the
chance to get dirty... plus we couldn't resist a little friendly competition. So on November 17, dozens of MEC staff and supporters met up
with the NSMBA to dig, grub and mine for gold on the North Shore. Our goal was
to build more trail than Arc'teryx over a few hours."
Unauthorized
bike trail damages pristine habitat in Forest Park:
https://bikeportland.org/2010/02/23/unauthorized-bike-trail-damages-pristine-habitat-in-forest-park-29920
Tracking the environmental impact of mountain biking in bushland:
http://www.abc.net.au/radionational/programs/offtrack/tracking-the-environmental-impact-of-mountain-biking/6559202
Mountain bikers are also degrading forests and thereby contributing to global
warming:
https://www.theguardian.com/environment/2017/sep/28/alarm-as-study-reveals-worlds-tropical-forests-are-huge-carbon-emission-source
The damage mountain bikers do on Fromme Mtn. Seems one builder, MW, who left
the NSMBA hasn't gone away (still digging on the North Shore) -- and the NSMBA
continues to give a thumbs up to this sort of digging and building:
http://www.pictame.com/media/1472817891010303069_435668765
More trenches dug in the name of "sustainable" mountain biking...:
http://www.pictame.com/media/1553816771487873049_435668765
and this is what they dug up the forest to build (video of the jump structure
in action):
http://www.pictame.com/media/1555623388244116041_435668765
How many buckets of gold dirt [mineral soil] and borrow pit digging was
required to pack all that dirt on the eroded mtb
trail on Mt. Fromme?:
http://www.pictame.com/media/1493117981432213889_435668765
This is what the NSMBA bragged about last year... How much more this year? For
your trail building files/paper to show how devastating this all is:
https://twitter.com/MECraver/status/890267891144081408
Pleasanton Ridge Illegal Trails - Park Ranger Helicopter Incident 1-27-12 (NICA
coaches taking high school mountain bikers on an illegal ride, in violation of
their own "rules"; note the nasty comments from the mountain bikers):
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=EJQJeB3hruA
Robert Moor: Only a single sentence negative on trails: "[W]e leave the
most destructive trails, I think, of any group of animals" p.160
Proof That High School Mountain Bike Racing Is Environmentally Destructive:
https://norcalmtb.smugmug.com/2017-Race-4-Granite-Bay-Grinder-Folsom/i-WQ2zCCG
https://norcalmtb.smugmug.com/2017-Race-4-Granite-Bay-Grinder-Folsom/i-mxvW2BD
https://norcalmtb.smugmug.com/2017-Race-4-Granite-Bay-Grinder-Folsom/i-mVDCGbF
Trees are falling, due to erosion exposing their roots:
http://www.pictame.com/media/1657084424238301428_2237726428
Intact forests are the key to fresh
water:
https://news.ok.ubc.ca/2017/12/07/forests-are-the-key-to-fresh-water/
http://www.euanforresterphotography.com/evidence-of-trail-fairies
(click on each photo with cursor to see the story behind the illegal trail
building.... some of it at night time, hiding under darkness.) This is now
celebrated and applauded.... wrong became a right, overnight... This is
how mountain bikers won CMHC... This is the sordid history of mountain biking
on our North Shore...
So much digging for dirt to pour over their ever eroding and compacted trails.
The riding style seen in the last part of this video is the reason why the
trails become that way, eroded and compacted. Anyone who tries to paint this
MTB sport as benign as hiking, etc. needs to watch this until their eyes pop
out!:
https://www.facebook.com/nsmba/videos/10155414065825036/
Illegal
trail building a vexing problem for public land managers:
https://durangoherald.com/articles/214352-illegal-trail-building-a-vexing-problem-for-public-land-managers
An example of how a mountain biker role model rides:
https://nsmb.com/articles/trail-destruction-matty-miles/
Illegal mountain biking on Mount Royal
is damaging its ecosystem, experts say. Repeatedly crossing the mountain's soil
loosens tree roots, affects Laurentian flora: http://www.cbc.ca/news/canada/montreal/mount-royal-mountain-biking-1.4675779
North Shore Mountain Biking Association Rationalizes Its Illegal
Trail-Building:
https://nsmb.com/articles/bc-warns-illegal-building-could-bring-jail-time-10k-fine/
Illegal trail-building in Kelowna, BC: http://www.kelownadailycourier.ca/life/article_3c900d9e-8c75-11e8-9837-7b4caec74090.html
Endangered bees caught in middle of plan to add mountain biking trails in
Minnetonka, MN: http://www.startribune.com/endangered-bees-caught-in-middle-of-plan-to-add-mountain-biking-trails-in-minnetonka/490114431/
Habitat destruction by mountain bikers using heavy equipment on Bowen Island,
BC: https://www.instagram.com/explore/tags/goldendirttrails/?hl=en
https://www.instagram.com/goldendirttrails/?hl=en
Photo showing the extra habitat destroyed by a winding vs. straight trail: https://www.stuff.co.nz/nelson-mail/news/110050760/nelson-mountain-bike-club-comes-of-age-as-a-big-cog-on-nz-landscape
A 2,000-km biking trail set to open in
the Balkans:
https://www.thejakartapost.com/travel/2019/01/28/a-2000-km-biking-trail-set-to-open-in-the-balkans.html
Proposed
system calls for 30 miles of new routes; seen as economic boon:
https://the-journal.com/articles/138412-trails-plan-aims-to-put-silverton-on-map-for-mountain-biking
"Impacts of Off-Road Recreation [specifically, mountain bike
trail-building] On Public Lands Habitat":
https://backcountryhunters-my.sharepoint.com/personal/webster_backcountryhunters_org/_layouts/15/onedrive.aspx?id=%2Fpersonal%2Fwebster_backcountryhunters_org%2FDocuments%2FAttachments%2F1Off%20Road%20Rec-Public%20Land%20Impacts-May18%2Epdf&parent=%2Fpersonal%2Fwebster_backcountryhunters_org%2FDocuments%2FAttachments&cid=c61f2b55-e5c4-41ac-bab8-73807388b4e0
Landers: Urging mountain bikers onto a sustainable track:
https://www.spokesman.com/stories/2019/sep/22/landers-urging-mountain-bikers-onto-a-sustainable-/
Profiting from habitat destruction (trail-building):
https://www.bcbikerace.com/resources-to-recreation/
https://vimeo.com/278210701
In Duluth, it costs about $45,000 to build one mile of trail: https://www.marketplace.org/2020/01/03/recreational-trails-seen-as-economic-boon/
Mountain bikers build illegal trails first, then ask permission only if they
get caught!:
https://www.northamptonchron.co.uk/news/mountain-bikers-who-built-ramps-at-northampton-park-accused-of-vandalism-by-borough-council-1-8845649
The same thing happened in both Victoria, BC and LaSalle, Ontario. Kids built
dirt jumps in parks without permission. The cities razed them and the mtb kids whined...
It's not trails that disturb forest birds, but the people on them
https://www.sciencedaily.com/releases/2018/11/181112082417.htm
"We believe protected areas with forbidden access are necessary and
important, and that new trails into remote forest areas should not be promoted.
Visitors to existing forest trails should be encouraged to adhere to a 'stay on
trail' rule and refrain from roaming from designated
pathways."
https://www.theage.com.au/national/victoria/anarchistic-mountain-bikers-threaten-inner-city-park-s-rare-plants-20190205-p50vt3.html:
"Mountain bike riders are currently the park's most destructive user
group.''
https://www.traverseticker.com/news/officials-battle-illegal-trails-at-commons/:
Parks Officials: Stay Off "Rogue" Trails
https://www.singletracks.com/mtb-trails/ireland-is-being-blanked-by-newly-built-singletracks/:
Ireland Is Being Blanketed in Newly-Built Singletrack Mountain Bike Trails
Illegal trail-building in the White Mountains National Forest:
http://outsideinradio.org/transcript-rake-and-ride:
"Sam Evans-Brown: If youve ever been walking and turned onto a trail that
suddenly is zig-zagging, maze-like through the woods, winding crazily through
the trees and doubling back on itself thats a
mountain bike trail. Theyre super frustrating to walk
on, because they take forever to get anywhere. Mountain bikers dont want views or point-to-point trails, they want
corners, and obstacles to get over, and downhills and to ride their bikes until
theyre tired and wind up back where they started. And
they want it close to home which means often these trails were built in
whatever woods were nearest by no matter whose they
were."
https://oregontimbertrail.org/about?blm_aid=115004
“Support our stewardship efforts—maintaining and building 700
miles of backcountry trail across the state isn’t easy. Do your part.”
https://www.sfchronicle.com/travel/article/Proposed-600-mile-Lost-Sierra-Route-would-connect-16774287.php
“Proposed 600-mile Lost Sierra
Route would connect Truckee to Lassen”
Recreationists in denial illegally
constructed mountain bike trails: https://www.e-know.ca/regions/columbia-valley/recreationists-in-denial/
Trail building is an integral part of being a mountain biker: https://www.redbull.com/se-en/best-mtb-trail-building-tools.
Organizations that promote trail-building:
https://www.americantrails.org, https://mtc.ca.gov/operations/regional-trails-parks/san-francisco-bay-trail,
https://www.evergreenmtb.org,
https://www.imba.com, https://www.nps.gov, https://www.railstotrails.org, https://ridgetrail.org, https://www.timberlinetrailcraft.com,
https://www.trailbuilders.org/, https://www.trail.care, https://www.trail.care/orgs, https://www.trailcenter.org, https://trailrunner.com, https://worldtrailsnetwork.org
"Colorado’s next great MTB destination is planning massive
singletrack expansion":
Bikepacking Roots
From:noelle@bikepackingroots.org
The Biking on Long Distance Trails (BOLT) Act was signed into law on January 4,
2025, after more than a decade of advocacy from the mountain biking and
bikepacking communities. The first core deliverable of the BOLT Act is that
federal land management agencies must develop a list of at least 10 existing
and 10 potential long-distance bike trails of no less than 80 miles.
Following the passage of the BOLT Act, Bikepacking Roots, IMBA, and PeopleForBikes joined forces as national cycling and trails
organizations alongside regional and local partners to form the BOLT Coalition.
The coalitions goals are to ensure bicyclist and trail steward voices are heard
in the BOLT trail prioritization process and to support federal agencies as
they prepare a required report to Congress.
Led by Bikepacking Roots, the coalition worked to build a database of existing
and potential trails that met the criteria for BOLT recognition. In mid-2025,
they surveyed the cycling community to obtain additional submissions to fill in
any potential gaps. That trail data was analyzed and synthesized into a new
report, Long
Live Long Trails: A Report by the Biking on Long Distance Trails (BOLT)
Coalition.
This process included refining assumptions for BOLT eligibility for the
purposes of the report. Key criteria include that trails are at least 80 miles,
the majority of the trail is on federal recreation lands, the trails are
primarily dirt/natural surfaces, and the trails may be legally used for biking.
After extensive research and considering 60+ submitted trails against BOLT
criteria, the report includes:
The lists included in the BOLT Coalition Report are not intended
to be considered exhaustive nor are they representative of trails that will
ultimately be selected for recognition by the federal land management agencies,
but the BOLT Coalition believes it captures many of the candidates eligible for
recognition.
Another key detail is that BOLT recognition is not a new trail designation,
such as a National Scenic Trail or a National Recreation Trail. However, this
recognition can raise awareness, open the door for further resources to support
the trails sustainability, facilitate relationships between land managers and
other trail stewards, and bring increased economic development to the
communities surrounding and connected by the long-distance trails.
Through publishing this report, we are excited to celebrate this diverse
catalog of outstanding long-distance trails on federal public lands across the
country, said Bikepacking Roots Executive Director Noelle Battle. We are also
encouraged by the potential for BOLT recognition to support ongoing development
of many of the promising trails classified as potential in the report.
From our first involvement in advocating for BOLT in 2022 to celebrating it
being passed into law to now bringing our expertise in long-distance bike
trails to the Coalitions efforts, the process of being directly involved in
BOLT advocacy has been deeply fulfilling, said Kait Boyle, Bikepacking Roots
advocacy manager. BOLT is an exciting opportunity for bikepackers
and adventure cyclists alike as it recognizes the value of stewarded,
maintained, long-distance bike trails, a value I am personally deeply committed
to as a professional adventure cyclist and co-founder of Bikepacking Roots.
Throughout this entire process, from the initial concept, through introduction,
to inclusion in the EXPLORE Act, and final passage, the BOLT Act has been an
incredible opportunity to engage with a diverse set of trail users who care
deeply about outdoor recreation, said Todd Keller, IMBA Director of Government
Affairs. This detailed report is the result of that fantastic collaboration,
and we look forward to the recognition of these trails on our federal
landscape.
The BOLT Coalition report and recognition have the potential to elevate the
importance of long-distance trails within the broader outdoor recreation system
and demonstrate the economic, community, and recreational value these
experiences provide, said Rachel Fussell, senior manager of recreation policy
at PeopleForBikes. At PeopleForBikes,
we see this report as an important step toward strengthening partnerships
between riders, local communities, nonprofit organizations, and federal land
managers to support the long-term sustainability and connectivity of these
iconic trail experiences across the country.
References:
Dawson, Chad P. and John C. Hendee, Wilderness Management Stewardship and
Protection of Resources and Values. Golden, CO: Fulcrum Publishing, 2009.
Ehrlich, Paul R. and Ehrlich, Anne H., Extinction: The Causes and
Consequences of the Disappearances of Species. New York: Random House,
1981.
Errington, Paul L., A Question of Values. Ames, Iowa: Iowa State
University Press, 1987.
Flannery, Tim, The Eternal Frontier -- An Ecological History of North
America and Its Peoples. New York: Grove Press, 2001.
Foreman, Dave, Confessions of an Eco-Warrior. New York: Harmony Books,
1991.
Forman, Richard T.T., Daniel
Sperling, John
A. Bissonette, Anthony
P. Clevenger, Carol
D. Cutshall, Virginia
H. Dale, Lenore
Fahrig, Robert L.
France, Charles
R. Goldman, Kevin
Heanue, Julia Jones,
Frederick Swanson,
Thomas Turrentine,
and Thomas C. Winter,
Road Ecology. Island Press, 2002.
Grumbine, R.E., Ghost Bears. Covelo, CA: Island Press, 1992.
Hilty, Jody A., Annika T. H. Keeley, William Z. Lidicker
Jr., and Adina M. Merenlender, Corridor Ecology -
Linking Landscapes for Biodiversity Conservation and Climate Adaptation.
Washington, D.C.: Island Press, 2019.
Knight, Richard L. and Kevin J. Gutzwiller, eds. Wildlife and Recreationists.
Covelo, California: Island Press, 1995.
Louv, Richard, Last Child in the Woods -- Saving Our Children from
Nature-Deficit Disorder. Chapel Hill, N.C.: Algonquin Books of Chapel Hill,
2005.
Moor, Robert (robertmoor.ontrails@gmail.com), On Trails. New York: Simon
& Schuster, 2016.
Newsome, D., C. Davies, "A case study in estimating the area of informal
trail development and associated impacts caused by mountain bike activity in
John Forrest National Park, Western Australia". Journal of Ecotourism.
2009 Dec 1; 8(3):237-53.
Noss, Reed F. and Allen Y. Cooperrider, Saving Nature's Legacy: Protecting
and Restoring Biodiversity. Island Press, Covelo, California, 1994.
Reed, Sarah E. and Adina M. Merenlender, "Quiet,
Nonconsumptive Recreation Reduces Protected Area Effectiveness". Conservation
Letters, 2008, 19.
Stone, Christopher D., Should Trees Have Standing? Toward Legal Rights for
Natural Objects. Los Altos, California: William Kaufmann, Inc., 1973.
Vandeman, Michael J., https://mjvande.info,
especially https://mjvande.info/ecocity3.htm,
https://mjvande.info/india3.htm, https://mjvande.info/mtbfaq.htm, https://mjvande.info/scb7.htm, https://mjvande.info/sc8.htm, and https://mjvande.info/goodall.htm.
Ward, Peter Douglas, The End of Evolution: On Mass Extinctions and the
Preservation of Biodiversity. New York: Bantam Books, 1994.
"The Wildlands Project", Wild Earth. Richmond, Vermont: The
Cenozoic Society, 1994.
Wilson, Edward O., The Future of Life. New York: Alfred A. Knopf, 2002.
[NOTE: This paper can be found at https://mjvande.info/scb9.htm,
where you can follow the above links without having to type them.]